Article:6.3

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Przemyśl
Przemyśl
     Przemyśl
Judith Kalik
       Topics
       Communal and Social Life

       Period
       Before 17721772-19141914-19181918-19391939-1945

       Region
       Western Galicia

       NLI Code
       997013604470105171


Related Personalities





Under the Polish Rule, 1340-1772

Przemyśl (Old Slavic and Ukrainian: Peremyshl’; Yiddish: Pshemishl) was one the so-called Cherven’ towns that changed hands between Poland and Kyivan Rus’ several times in the 10th and 11th centuries. Jews of Przemyśl are probably first mentioned in the 11th century, in one of the earliest references to Jews in Poland, the rabbinical responsa of Rabbi Judah ben Meir of Mainz.[1] These Jews were probably among the so-called “Canaanite” Jews—Slavic-speaking Jews from Kyiv, where they had lived at least since the early 10th century.

In 1340, King Casimir III the Great of Poland incorporated the principality of Halych into his realm, opening a door for the migration of Ashkenazi Jews to Red Ruthenia. These Ashkenazi Jews are first mentioned in Przemyśl in court records from this town in 1404.[2] Leopold Hauser suggested that Jews began to settle in Przemyśl after 1367, when Casimir the Great granted his privilege to the Jews of Red Ruthenia,[3] but Przemyśl is not mentioned in this document. It is equally possible that Jews appeared in Przemyśl in 1369, when this royal town was granted the [rights], which generally tolerated the Jews, but they are not mentioned in this charter either. The Jewish Street (platea judeorum) in Przemyśl is first mentioned in 1419[4] and the oldest synagogue there is first mentioned in 1518.[5]

In the 15th century, Jews of Przemyśl were mainly moneylenders, royal tax-farmers, and merchants. In 1542 there were eighteen Jewish families in Przemyśl, seven owning houses on the Jewish Street and the others renting habitations elsewhere. One of the householders was a glazier who made windowpanes at the castle; another was a physician (medicus) employed by the royal administrator (starosta).[6] It is also probable that Sephardic Jews from Ottoman Turkey reached Przemyśl in the 16th century because of the geographical position of the town on the main trade route between Poland and Turkey.

In 1559, King Sigismund II August granted the first privilege to the Jews of Przemyśl, and by the next year the town’s Jewish community were already making preparations for the construction of a new synagogue. However, the daughters of the recently deceased local noble, Count Jan Orzechowski, demanded the plot of land intended for the building for themselves as an inheritance from their father. The Jewish community claimed that Orzechowski had ceded this plot back in 1532 to his Jewish “girlfriend” (drużyannie gamratcze swojej), who had passed it on to the community. The trial continued almost for a decade and the problem was resolved only in 1570, when the Catholic Cathedral chapter (a body of advisors assisting the bishop) of Przemyśl agreed to rent a plot of church-owned land for the construction of a synagogue in return for an annual payment of one mark.[7] 6.3-Przemysl-1

This synagogue, later known as the Old Synagogue because the oldest synagogue did not survive, was originally built of wood. The construction of a stone synagogue in its place was approved by Bishop Wawrzyniec Goślicki in 1592.[8] In 1559, Jews in Przemyśl purchased three plots of land from a vicar of the Orthodox Church for a new Jewish cemetery in addition to an existing one.[9]

According to the lustration (in Poland, revision records of royal estates) of 1565, there were thirteen Jewish-owned houses in Przemyśl, each charged four złoty of municipal tax annually, and ten tenants who remitted two złoty annually. In 1645, after a prolonged conflict, the Municipality of Przemyśl reached an agreement with the Jewish community about restrictions on the economic activity of Jewish merchants and craftsmen.

This document mentions guilds of Jewish furriers, tailors, shoemakers, saddlers, and hatters, as well as Jewish chemists, physicians, and barbers (who doubled as paramedics). Jewish shopkeepers were allowed to keep shops on the Jewish Street only, and Jewish merchants were allowed to buy metals and sell textiles, candles, and fish, but were prohibited from selling bread outside the Jewish Street near the synagogue.[10] In 1672, Jews were also allowed to brew and sell mead, signaling their entrance into the so-called propination system (the right to produce and sell alcohol).

Within the framework of Jewish autonomy in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Przemyśl was an exterritorial urban community independent of the Przemyśl regional council (galil), which comprised five major communities: Dobromil, Jarosław|, Kańczuga, Leżajsk, and Przeworsk. This was a common feature of Jewish autonomy, in which large royal cities such as Kraków, Poznań, and Lublin were independent of the surrounding regional councils. Contrary to the widespread misconception, Przemyśl had no rural periphery (sevivot). All villages in its vicinity belonged to the Przemyśl Regional Council and not to the Pzemyśl urban community.

By the mid-18th century, Jews of Przemyśl also settled outside the city walls in three suburbs: Wilcze and Mnisze (part of modern Lwowskie Przedmieście), northeast of the town, and Zasanie, on the left bank of the San River.[11] Relocation to suburbs was a widespread practice among Jews in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, because Jews who did so freed themselves of municipal restrictions and gained the protection of the suburbs’ owners. As in the case of the establishment of the Old Synagogue in Przemyśl proper, Jews in the suburbs placed themselves under the protection of the Church because Wilcze and Mnisze were ecclesiastic suburbs, owned by the Greek Catholic Bishop of Przemyśl. Unlike other similar cases, however, these suburban Jews remitted their poll tax through the Przemyśl Regional Council and not via the independent community of Przemyśl. 6.3-Przemysl-4

Table 1: Poll tax paid by Jews of Przemyśl and its suburbs, 1563–1578[12] and 1717–1764 (in złoty)[13]

Year 1563 1567 1577 1578 1717 1718 1719 1720 1721 1722 1723 1724 1733
Przemyśl 169 150 150 206 2,888 2,886 1,801 2,469 2,139 2,112 1,368 1,871 1,683
Year 1734 1735 1736 1737 1738 1739 1740 1741 1742 1743 1744 1745 1746
Przemyśl 1,686 1,560 1,560 1,628 1,671 1,622 1,600 1,279 818 1638 1,728 2,068 2,068
Wilcze and and Mnisze 70 70 60 80 80 90
Year 1747 1748 1749 1750 1751 1752 1753 1754 1755 1756 1757 1758 1759
Przemyśl 1,968 2,008 1,743 1,593 2,883 1,153 1,172 1,200 2,874 1,563 1,408 2,145 1,345
Wilcze and and Mnisze 90 90 108 131 126 126 162 162 162 168
Zasanie 90 90 60 60 70 60
Year 1760 1761 1762 1763 1764
Przemyśl 1,542 1,225 1,677 2,000
Wilcze and Mnisze 108 130 140 140 140
Zasanie 60 60 60 60

According to the 1764/65 census, there were 2,418 Jews in Przemyśl, thereof: 111 merchants, three bakers, five butchers, eleven tailors, six haberdashers, four furriers, four goldsmiths, and six barbers.[14]

The Austrian Period, 1772-1918

After the first partition of Poland, Przemyśl became part of Austrian Galicia and remained so until 1918. In 1820, 134 of the 143 merchants of Przemyśl were Jewish.[15]

As in the 18th century, Jews continued to live in several suburbs of Przemyśl in the late 19th century but their geography changed: they remained in Lwowskie przedmieście (which included Mnisze) and Zasanie but left Wilcze and settled in Podzamcze, west of the Old City, and in Lipowica on the left bank of the San, north of Zasanie.[16] In the 19th century, all belonged to the urban community of Przemyśl.

Railroad construction made the greatest contribution to the economic development of Przemyśl in the second half of the 19th century. Jews of Przemyśl became involved in steel, grain, and the timber trade. They also founded flour mills, sawmills, and brickyards. In 1866, the Jew Izydor Rattler established an alcohol distillery in the town.[17] In 1878, Przemyśl was declared a fortress and a large military garrison was stationed there. Many Jews became suppliers of goods and equipment for the garrison and many others served in the force as soldiers and officers. In 1900, 790 Jews were serving in the military—730 stationed in the fortified town and sixty in the Zasanie suburb.[18] By the end of the 19th century, Jews owned three financial institutions: the Bank Association, founded in 1882 by Julius Reiniger; the Credit Union, founded in 1890 by Mauricy Krug; and Commercial Advance Payment Society, founded in 1895 by Simon Bernstein. 6.3-Przemysl-7

Under Austrian rule, the Jews of Przemyśl were initially subordinated to the municipality and denied equal rights. They gained equal rights only in 1867 with the adoption of the liberal Austro-Hungarian constitution, at which time the municipal council became composed of eighteen Christians and eighteen Jews. The Jewish community was reorganized in 1874 within the framework of a general municipal reform. Its communal council elected for three years was comprised of twenty-four members, and elected its president annually. The council was subdivided into three sections, responsible for religion, charity, and finances.[19]

The exact date of the appearance of Hasidic movement in Przemyśl is unknown and the problem of determining this is aggravated by frequent confusion between Przemyśl and Przemyślany. According to a report from the chief of Przemyśl District, there were about one hundred Hasidim in the town in 1827 but none of the Hasidic masters resided in the district.[20] The hasidic presence in Przemyśl was strengthened in 1860 when the rabbi of Żołynia, Joseph Moses Teicher, a prominent halachic scholar and a follower of several Galician hasidic leaders, took up the position of rabbi of Przemyśl. In 1884, adherents of the hasidic Bełz dynasty also appeared in Przemyśl, where they founded the local branch of the Maḥzike ha-Dat association.

Simultaneously, the Haskalah [Jewish enlightenment] and the progressive movements began to gain support in Przemyśl. The progressive Temple Synagogue 6.3-Przemysl-8 was opened in 1890. Designed by Marceli Pilecki, a graduate of the Lwów Politechnical School (1881), in a Rundbogen (round-arched) style, it was regarded as one of the most beautiful synagogues in Galicia. The so-called New Synagogue, designed by Stanisław Majerski, a graduate of the same school (1896) in the Neo-Moorish style, was opened in 1918, and the synagogue in the Zasanie suburb was built in 1909. 6.3-Przemysl-9

The new Jewish cemetery was founded in 1865 in addition to the old cemetery, which had existed since 1559. One of the leading rabbis in Przemyśl was Isaac Judah Schmelkes, author of the famous Beit Yitsḥak collection of responsa, who headed the rabbinical court in the town in 1869–1893. His nephew, Gedaliyah Schmelkes served as a rabbi from 1905 and attended the Zionist Congresses of 1909 and 1911. The community maintained several welfare institutions; it established a Jewish hospital in 1905 and a home for the elderly, also operating as an orphanage and a soup kitchen, in 1907.

The maskilim [enlightened Jews] of Galicia were split between supporters of the German liberals, who promoted use of the German language, and supporters of the Polish national movement, who promoted Polish language and culture among the Jews. The former organized in the Shomer Yisrael society, which published the German-language journal Der Israelit, and the latter organized in the Agudat Aḥim society, which published the Polish-language paper Ojczyzna. The Scientific Reading Room (Czytelnia Naukowa), with its large collection of Polish and German books, served as a cultural center for both groups. 6.3-Przemysl-10

The first Zionist organization in Przemyśl, Ḥevrat Yishuv Erets Yisrael [The Land of Israel Settlement Society], was founded in 1875, and the cultural society for promotion of the Hebrew language, Dorshei Torah va-Da’at [Seekers of Torah and knowledge], was established in 1877. The local branch of the Ḥibat Tsiyon [Love of Zion] organization was opened in Przemyśl in 1893. The Zionist political party Tsiyon was founded the same year by Leib Mendel Landau, Avigdor Marmelstein, Mordekhai Schmelkes, and Jacob Ehrlich. The cultural branch of their party was the Yeshurun society, founded in 1894. The local branch of the Yidisher Sotsial-Demokratisher Partey [Jewish Social-Democratic Party] was opened in 1905 and the local section of the Zionist-Socialist movement Po’alei Tsiyon—in 1906. In 1907, the constituency of Przemyśl elected Dr. Herman Lieberman to the Reichsrat in Vienna as a representative of the Polish Social-Democratic Party.

In 1865, Abraham Moses Sarter founded a two-grade Jewish school for boys with Polish as the language of instruction; in 1894 Avigdor Marmelstein opened the five-grade Tikvat Yisrael [The Hope of Israel] boys’ school with the Hebrew as its language of instruction. The Przemyśl branch of the Jewish Toynbee Hall movement[21] was founded in 1902.[22]

Table 2: Jewish population of Przemyśl and its suburbs, 1890 and 1900[23]

Year 1890 1900
Number of Jews and their proportion in the general population Number Percent Number Percent
Przemyśl Lipowica Lwowskie przedmieście Podzamcze Zasanie 5,850 21 3,787 239 1,101 36.61 7.98 35.28 14.26 16.78 5,907 23 5,796 278 2,105 35.86 6.99 38.03 13.85 17.19
Total 10,998 31.24 14,109 30.48

With the outbreak of the World War I, about 8,000 Jews fled from Przemyśl during the Russian offensive in September 1914. Russian forces occupied the town after a prolonged siege in March 1915. A special Jewish regiment of the Austrian army actively participated in the defense of Przemyśl. In May 1915, all Jews remaining in the town were expelled. They returned two months later, following the Austro-Hungarian and German counteroffensive, and found their houses destroyed or looted. 6.3-Przemysl-11

In the Second Polish Republic

After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in October 1918, a provisional local government representing Polish, Ukrainian, and Jewish segments of the municipal population was formed on November 1. On November 3, however, Ukrainian forces captured Przemyśl and the fighting between Poles and Ukrainians for Przemyśl continued until November 12, when the Polish forces conquered the town. The Jewish militia remained neutral, but both sides suspected the Jews of collaborating with the enemy. Anti-Jewish riots began on November 11 and lasted for several days, leaving sixty-seven Jewish-owned houses and seventy-six stores looted by Polish soldiers. Despite the anti-Jewish violence, the Jewish lawyer Joseph Mantel orchestrated an agreement that put an end to the Polish-Ukrainian fighting over the town. 6.3-Przemysl-13

There were 18,360 Jews in Przemyśl in 1921, 38.3% of the total population, and in 1928 the Zionist Dr. Henryk Reichman was elected deputy mayor of the town. During the interwar period, nine Jewish professional associations operated in Przemyśl: a branch of the Jewish Agricultural Association, the Yad Ḥarutsim Association of Jewish Craftsmen, headed by Leon Nussenfeld, the Ḥesed ve-Emet Charitable Association of Bakers’ Assistants, the Union of Professional Bakers of matsa, the Association of Jewish Master Seamsters, the Union of Professional Master Tailors, the Association of Butchers, the Professional Association of Jewish Merchants, and the Professional Association of Jewish Private Clerks.

Four new synagogues were added to the four existing ones: the New Jewish Temple (Reform), the Hasidic Kloyz, the Great Beit Midrash (Orthodox), and the synagogue of the Baron Maurice de Hirsch Foundation. In 1919, the Hasidic master Yehshuah Shapiro of Rybotycze of the Błażowa Hasidic dynasty settled in Przemyśl, where he founded a prayer house of his own, and in 1923 the Hasidic master Mordekhai Shalom Yosef Friedman of the Sadigura dynasty founded his yeshiva, Meshivat Nefesh, there. The Agudat Israel movement (Orthodox) founded ‘Ets Ḥayim yeshiva for men and a Beit Ya’akov school for girls. The Beit Talmud Jewish School Association ran a religious school financed by the Hasidic master Aharon Rokeach of the Bełz dynasty. The Jewish Craftsmen Workshop Society opened a women’s tailoring school, and the Jewish Public School Society financed the secular secondary school. Four the Zionist youth movements—Ha-Shomer ha-Tsa’ir, Gordonia, Torah va-’Avodah, and Betar, had hundreds of members in the 1920s and 1930s. 6.3-Przemysl-12

Second World War and its Aftermath

With the outbreak of World War II, German invading forces reached Przemyśl on September 14, 1939 but retreated on September 28, when the demarcation line between the German and Soviet occupation zones was drawn at the San River, leaving suburbs on the left bank of the river in German hands and the town itself under Soviet rule. During the few days of German occupation, the Germans killed about 500 Jews and burnt down the Old Synagogue and the Temple synagogue. After their retreat, they deported almost all Jews from the suburbs on the left bank of the San to the Soviet occupation zone. 6.3-Przemysl-14

The Soviet authorities closed all remaining synagogues, nationalized all Jewish public institutions, and dissolved and banned all Jewish societies and political parties. In April–May 1940, the Soviets deported about 7,000 Jews, mostly refugees from the German zone of occupation, from Przemyśl to Central Asia, which eventually saved their lives.

The Germans recaptured Przemyśl on June 28, 1941, soon after their invasion of the Soviet Union, when about 16,500 Jews remained in the town. The Przemyśl Judenrat, headed by Dr. Ignacy Duldig, was established in July and immediately all the Jewish townspeople were forced to settle in a ghetto bounded on three sides by the bend of the San River and, on the south, by the Kraków-Lviv rail line. On July 26, 1942, the SS planned to begin the deportation of the Jews from the ghetto to the death camp at Bełżec. However, the German military commander in Przemyśl, Major Max Liedtke, ordered the bridge over the San closed and thus prevented the SS units from entering the ghetto. Liedtke’s adjutant, Captain Albert Battel, entered the ghetto with several trucks and transferred about one hundred Jews from the ghetto to his military base under the pretext of his needing workers, thus saving their lives. In 1993, Yad Vashem recognized Liedtke and Battel as Righteous among the Nations. Nonetheless, 9,850 Jews were sent to death in Bełżec between July 27 and August 3, 1942. Dr. Duldig was shot to death on the steps of the Judenrat building. All Jewish converts to Christianity were executed at the Jewish cemetery and all patients at the Jewish hospital were killed on the spot.

The second Aktion in Przemyśl took place on November 17, 1942, with the deportation of some 4,000 Jews from the ghetto to Bełżec. At its end, the ghetto was downsized and its remaining part was divided into Ghetto A, with about 800 able-bodied inmates, and Ghetto B, tenanted by about 4,000 “unproductive” Jews. The final liquidation of Ghetto B began on September 2, 1943, with approximately 3,500 Jews sent to Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp. The so-called “Turnhalle Aktion” ensued on September 10, as the remaining 1,580 Jews were assembled in the Gymnasium and shot in groups of fifty. Between November 28, 1943, and February 2, 1944, the remaining 1,000 Jews in Ghetto A were either shot or sent to various concentration camps. With the final destruction of the ghetto in February 1944, Przemyśl was declared Judenrein. Image:6.3-Przemysl-16

When Red Army forces re-conquered Przemyśl on July 27, 1944, 415 Jews remained in the town, of whom 250 were pre-war townspeople who emerged from hiding in the town and in surrounding villages.[24] Under the Polish-Soviet agreement of August 16, 1945, Przemyśl became part of Poland. Between June 18 and 21, 1946, five Jews were murdered in the town. In 1966, there were 350 Jews in Przemyśl, all of whom left Poland after 1968. At the present writing, there is no Jewish community in Przemyśl; only buildings that remain attest to the erstwhile Jewish presence.

Table 3: General and Jewish population of Przemyśl, 1569–1941[25]

Year General population Jewish population Proportion of Jews, percent
1569 1764 1775 1798 1830 1857 1869 1880 1890 1900 1910 1921 1931 1939 1941 4,979 2,842 7,538 10,140 15,185 22,040 35,209 46,295 54,078 47,958 58,644 54,000 65,798 270 2,418 1,558 1,426 2,298 4,180 5,692 7,645 10,998 14,109 16,062 18,360 17,300 20,000 16,500 31.29 50.17 30.48 41.22 37.48 34.68 31.23 30.47 29.7 38.28 29.5 37.03 25.07

Select bibliography

Dunagan, Curt. “Przemyśl,” Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933–1945. Edited by Geoffrey Megargee, vol. 2, edited by Martin Dean. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2012, 555–8.

Hauser, Leopold. Monografia miasta Przemyśla. Przemyśl: Domena Publiczna Informacje, 1883.

Arie Menczer, ed. Sefer Pshemishl. Tel Aviv: Przemyśl Landsmanshaft in Israel, 1964.

Schorr, Mojżesz. Żydzi w Przemyślu do końca XVIII wieku. Lwów: 1903; reprint: Jerusalem: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Center for Research on the History and Culture of Polish Jews, 1991.

  1. ↑ Irving A. Agus, Urban Civilization in Pre-Crusade Europe: A Study of Organized Town-Life in Northwestern Europe during the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries, Based on the Responsa Literature, vol. 1 (New York: E.J. Brill, 1965), 104–105. The town is called Primut in the manuscripts; although some scholars challenge this identification, the common opinion is that this is Przemyśl. See Alexander Kulik and Judith Kalik, Jews in Medieval Poland: A Documentary History (Bloomington IN: Indiana University Press, forthcoming).
  2. ↑ Księga Ławnicza 1402–1445 (Pomniki dziejowe Przemyśla), ed. Jan Smołka and Zofia Tymińska (Przemyśl: Gminy Miasta Przemyśla, 1936), 7 (note 102).
  3. ↑ Leopold Hauser, Monografia miasta Przemyśla (Przemyśl: Domena Publiczna. Informacje, 1883), 103.
  4. ↑ Księga Ławnicza 1402–1445 (Pomniki dziejowe Przemyśla), ed. Jan Smołka and Zofia Tymińska (Przemyśl: Gminy Miasta Przemyśla, 1936), 7 (note 1135).
  5. ↑ Hanna Węgrzynek, “Z badań nad dziejami Żydów przemyskich w XV wieku,” Przemyskie zapiski historyczne 6–7 (1989/90), 65.
  6. ↑ Leopold Hauser, Monografia miasta Przemyśla (Przemyśl: Domena Publiczna. Informacje, 1883), 56, note 3
  7. ↑ Leopold Hauser, Monografia miasta Przemyśla (Przemyśl: Domena Publiczna. Informacje, 1883), 57.
  8. ↑ Mojżesz Schorr, Żydzi w Przemyślu do końca XVIII wieku (Lwów: 1903; reprint: Jerusalem: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Center for Research on the History and Culture of Polish Jews, 1991), 14 (The bishop is called here erroneously Gostycki).
  9. ↑ Dov Nitsani (Knopf), “Ḥayei yehudei Pshemishl ba’avar (Sikum hasifrut ha-historit),” in Sefer Pshemishl, ed. Arie Menczer (Tel Aviv: Przemyśl Landsmanshaft in Israel, 1964), 21–22.
  10. ↑ Mojżesz Schorr, Żydzi w Przemyślu do końca XVIII wieku (Lwów: 1903; reprint: Jerusalem: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Center for Research on the History and Culture of Polish Jews, 1991), 28–29 (note 8).
  11. ↑ Judith Kalik, Scepter of Judah: The Jewish Autonomy in the Eighteenth Century Crown Poland (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2009), 55–59.
  12. ↑ Maurycy Horn, Żydzi na Rusi czerwonej w XVI i pierwszej połowie XVII w (Warsaw, 1975), 298 (Table D).
  13. ↑ Judith Kalik, Scepter of Judah: The Jewish Autonomy in the Eighteenth Century Crown Poland (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2009), 58.
  14. ↑ Jerzy Motylewicz, “Żydzi w miastach ziemi przemyskiej i sanockiej w drugiej połowie XVII i w XVIII wieku,” in Żydzi w Małopolsce, ed. Feliks Kiryk (Przemyśl: Południowo-Wschodni Instytut Nauk, 1991), 124, 129.
  15. ↑ Leopold Hauser, Monografia miasta Przemyśla (Przemyśl: Domena Publiczna. Informacje, 1883),, 176–7.
  16. ↑ August Fenczak, “Uwagi o rozmieszczeniu ludności żydowskiej w Przemyślu na przełomie wieków XIX i XX,” in Żydzi w Małopolsce, ed. Feliks Kiryk (Przemyśl: Południowo-Wschodni Instytut Naukowy, 1991), 265–71.
  17. ↑ Leopold Hauser, Monografia miasta Przemyśla (Przemyśl: Domena Publiczna. Informacje, 1883),, 274.
  18. ↑ August Fenczak, “Uwagi o rozmieszczeniu ludności żydowskiej w Przemyślu na przełomie wieków XIX i XX,” in Żydzi w Małopolsce, ed. Feliks Kiryk (Przemyśl: Południowo-Wschodni Instytut Naukowy, 1991), 270 (Table 3).
  19. ↑ Leopold Hauser, Monografia miasta Przemyśla (Przemyśl: Domena Publiczna. Informacje,, 233 (note 3).
  20. ↑ Raphael Mahler, Hasidism and the Jewish Enlightenment: Their Confrontation in Galicia and Poland in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1985), 92.
  21. ↑ On this organization, see David Rechter, “Improving the Volk: Leon Kellner and the Jewish Toynbee Hall Movement (1900–39),” Jewish Social Studies 24 (2019): 51–79.
  22. ↑ On Jewish cultural and political life in Przemyśl during the Austrian period, see Wacław Wierzbieniec, “Życie kulturalno-oświatowe Żydów przemyskich w okresie autonomii Galicji,” in Żydzi w Małopolsce, ed. Feliks Kiryk (Przemyśl: Południowo-Wschodni Instytut Naukowy, 1991), 207–36.
  23. ↑ August Fenczak, “Uwagi,” 269 (Table 2).
  24. ↑ On the Jews of Przemyśl during the Holocaust, see Curt Dunagan, “Przemyśl,” Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933-1945, ed. Geoffrey Megargee, vol. 2, ed. Martin Dean (Bloomington IN: Indiana University Press, 2012), 555–558.
  25. ↑ Numbers based on fiscal censuses taken before the first scientific census of 1869 are unreliable.
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