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Article text: <span id="jewish-names-in-galicia-and-bukovina"></span> = Jewish Names in Galicia and Bukovina = '''Johannes Czakai''' Among the most visible remnants of Habsburg rule in Galicia and Bukovina are the family names of Jews. In several edicts and regulations between 1785 and 1805, the Habsburg administration regulated the names and naming system of the Jewish population in the newly acquired eastern provinces. In fact, in 1785, Galicia was the first European territory in which Jews were ordered to adopt fixed and hereditary family names. This was followed by a similar edict for the Jews in Bukovina in 1786. Other steps were the naming edict for Jews throughout the monarchy (1787), a prohibition of the use of noble names by Jews in Galicia (1802), and a naming edict for Jews in the newly acquired West Galicia province (1805), the last-mentioned belonging to the Habsburg Empire only between 1795 and 1809. These various name regulations, which targeted only the Jewish population, as well as the names themselves, accompanied the Austrian-Jewish experience in the new provinces from 1772 to 1918. ''' Names in the Pre-Austrian Period''' '''1. Given Names''' Proper names were immensely important in Judaism. Every boy received a name at circumcision that was used in religious contexts such as synagogue rituals, religious documents, and on gravestones. It was also common to have a name for everyday use, including interactions with non-Jews. Girls’ names were less regimented; there was no naming ceremony and no division between secular and religious uses. These given names mirror the migration history of Jews in general and those Jews of Galicia and Bukovina in particular. While the core “inventory” of religious given names was mostly of biblical, post-biblical, or Greek origin (e.g., Mosheh, Avraham, Yitsḥak, Mordeḥai, Sarah, Devora, Aleksander, Kalonymos/Kalman), secular male and female names were often taken from other languages. They were translations or correlates of religious names into Yiddish or some other vernacular (the biblical name Binyamin, for instance, was associated with a wolf, Hebr.: ''Zeev'', Yid.: ''Volf''), complemented by names of German (Gutkind, Gottschalk, Brayne, Frumet, Toybe), Slavic (Dobre, Vikhne, Zlate), and other origins (Shprintse, Perle). Also typical were Yiddish and Polish diminutives such as Berko, Herszko, Lewko, Yankel, Feybush, Gitel, Sorke, and Sheyndel. Since non-Jews also used biblical names, some names were used by both Jews and non-Jews; examples are Avraham and Józef. Combinations of a religious name and a secular (linguistic) equivalent were common, such as Yitsḥak Ayzik, Yehoshua Heshel, or Menaḥem Mendel. Three correlating names are sometimes attested, as in Naftali Tsevi Hirsh and Yehudah Arye Leib. As was customary among Ashkenazi Jews, children were named after deceased relatives—mostly grandparents—and some families passed down given names for generations. Given names could also be changed, for example, in case of a serious illness. Thus, names like Ḥayim and Ḥaya [life], and Alte and Alter [old], were added in order, it was believed, to deter the Angel of Death.<ref>Alexander Beider, “Names and Naming,” in YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, ed. Gershon David Hundert (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2008), vol. 2, 1248–1251.</ref> In everyday life, both Jews and non-Jews mostly went only by their first names, with male Jews’ names often preceded by an honorary title such as ''reb'' (master) or ''morenu'' (our teacher). Next to their first names, Jews were known under other epithets. The most basic were patronymics and matronymics: male Jews were most commonly referred to by the names of their fathers (Sheloomoh ''ben'' [son of] Yitsḥak) or their mothers (Reb Israel, son of Leah), while women were usually referred to by the names of their fathers or husbands (Yenta wife of Reb Yitsḥak). Additionally, all kinds of epithets and nicknames in different languages were used in reference to religious functions or tribes (Kohen, Katz – priests; Segal – Levites), places of origin (Ashkenazi, Schlesinger, Oppenheim, Polak, Shpira/Shapiro), or occupations (Tsoref[goldsmith], Glaser). In the old cemeteries of Brody and Kraków, we find a variety of appellations such as like patronymics and matronymics (Perles [offspring of Perle]), occupations (Druker [printer], Krohmalnik [starch maker]), community functions (Dayan [judge]), or physical appearances (Shachor [black], Katan [small]). These names usually described individuals and therefore were not bequeathed from one generation to the next.<ref>Nathan Michael Gelber, “Aus dem ‘Pinax des alten Judenfriedhofes in Brody’ (1699–1831),” Jahrbuch der Jüdisch-Literarischen Gesellschaft XIII (1920), 119–141; Leszek Hońdo, ''Stary żydowski cmentarz w Krakowie: Historia cmentarza. Analiza hebrajskich inskrypcji'' (Kraków: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, 1999).</ref> '''Surnames''' Only in the 17^th and 18^th centuries did Jews in Poland-Lithuania slowly begin to develop fixed surnames. This was an adaptation of a similar custom among Christian Poles that had begun some centuries earlier. Until the end of the 15^th century, the fluid epithets of Christian Poles stabilized and turned from individual appellations to family names. This development started in the nobility, continued among the burghers, and ultimately spread to the peasantry. Even at the end of the 18^th century, the use of surnames among non-Jews was still not established everywhere. Among Jews, hereditary surnames first became common among upper-class families that claimed ''yikhes'' [learned and noble lineage]. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, they were encountered mainly among notable families such as '''Landau''', '''Rapaport''', '''Margulies''', and '''Katzenellenbogen-Wahl'''. In large and important communities, such as Brody, some epithets—Czaczkes and Chajes, for example—were clearly inherited over multiple generations from the late 17^th century on. In mid-18^th century Lwów, we encounter heritable family names among community elders such as Leibel Balaban, Rachmil Mizes, Avraham Berlach, Marcus Feigeles, and Herschel Reis. Although many of these epithets were used like surnames, they were not surnames in the modern sense. Instead, they may be characterized as “proto” family names; they were not necessarily inherited in a patrilineal order and sometimes disappeared in exchange for others.[[Image:2.2.2-Names-1|2.2.2-Names-1]] At the beginning of Austrian rule, a (proto) family name was one of several ways to identify a person—Jewish or not—and there was not necessarily a clear boundary between a nickname and an informative appellation. Although non-Jews had begun to use hereditary family names much earlier, the custom was not universally common. Some Christian peasants did not use or even know their family names, while some Jewish dignitaries did. There were neither religious nor political restrictions on the use of personal names in Poland-Lithuania or anywhere else and Jews might be known under several names depending on source and language. The most common pattern in Polish sources was to identify a male by his father’s name (-owicz: Abramowicz [son of Avraham], Moszkowicz etc), the place of origin (-ski: Kożuchowski, Stobnicki, Szydłowski), occupation (Cyrulik, Muzykant, Szkolnik), or other features. The founder of the Izaak Synagogue in [[Community:Kraków|Kraków]], for instance, was known as Izak Jakubowicz [Yitsḥak son of Ya’akov], Reb Ejzyk, Reb Jeikeles, or Izak Bogaty [the rich]. In Polish sources, names of Jews were recorded according to Polish customs and these names and signatures in different languages conveyed different information. Thus, while a Jewish baker in Brody appears as Michel Chaimowicz in Polish sources, his signature in Hebrew letters identifies him as “Yeḥiel Mikhel, son of our honored master, [the late] Reb Ḥayim,” indicating that his father was deceased. '''The Austrian Period''' When the Austrians occupied the territories in 1772 and 1774/75 and named them Galicia and Bukovina, they introduced German as a new administrative language. Now Jews appeared in different sources according to the German custom, which prescribed a first name and a father’s name in German (Moyses Isaac, Herschel Chaim).<ref>Johannes Czakai, Nochems neue Namen: Die Juden Galiziens und der Bukowina und die Einführung deutscher Vor- und Familiennamen 1772–1820 (Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2021), 82–112.</ref> '''The First Adoption of Family Names (1785)''' In the first decade of Habsburg rule in Galicia, the fluid names of Jews did not pose a problem for the administration, although Yiddish first names or Polish spellings challenged German-speaking officials. Only during the reign of Joseph II (1780–1790) did the administration begin to take an interest in the names of Jews and, in 1785, enacted a first-name regulation for Galician Jews. The Austrian administration decreed a new census of all Jewish inhabitants of the province called a “conscription” (not to be confused with military conscription),<ref>Johannes Czakai, Nochems neue Namen: Die Juden Galiziens und der Bukowina und die Einführung deutscher Vor- und Familiennamen 1772–1820 (Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2021), 170–85.</ref> conducted by commissions of Austrian district officials and local Jewish dignitaries. During this process, each Jewish family had to record a permanent surname, which was written down in newly created family books and made it possible to identify every Jewish family in the province. Yiddish first names generally remained untouched. This innovative measure was closely connected to Joseph II’s reform policy, the reorganization of the tax system, and the integration of Jews under Habsburg rule. The new tax system and the abolition of Jewish self-government required the administration to implement a new surveillance system based on personal identification with which the bureaucracy could closely monitor the size and financial situation of every Jewish family in the province. Notably, this regulation was aimed solely at the Jews of Galicia; no similar measures were implemented for non-Jews. Etymological analyses allows us to assume that the vast majority of surnames introduced in 1785 were created by German-speaking officials. The most typical naming patterns were simple German nouns or adjectives (e.g., Donner [thunder], Essen [food], Grün [green], and Pferd [horse]); others were compound (e.g., Blumenthal [valley of flowers], Riesenbach [stream of giants], and Kurzmantel [short coat]). Such nouns had all kinds of meanings and did not follow a distinctive pattern. The compound names were most likely assigned because they enabled the census commission to create names more efficiently (for example, with -mann: Fischmann, Feldmann, Nachtmann). Sometimes the new names were inspired by occupations, places of origin, or bodily or physical characteristics of their first bearers (like Brandwein [brandy], Drohobiczer [from Drohobycz], Ohnehand [lacking a hand], and Geplagt [plagued]). Other names were purely artificial and had no connection to the actual bearer (Rosenblüh [rose blossom], Grünzweig [green twig]). Although some names have a derogatory meaning (Elend [miserable], Stockblind [stark-blind]), they are scarce and there is no evidence that officials systematically assigned derogatory names or took bribes in order to register “beautiful” names. Despite the powerful position of the German-speaking officials, some Jewish heads of family chose their permanent surname themselves. Therefore, some names derive from Yiddish words and names (Mendel [diminutive of Menaḥem], Bodek/ Boydek [ritual-slaughter inspector]) or from proto-surnames that were used before 1785 (such as the aforementioned Balaban, Reis, and Mizes). In sum, it may be assumed that most Jewish families in Galicia adopted a family name in 1785 while keeping their traditional Yiddish first names. The development in Bukovina was slightly different. Bukovina was controlled by a military administration from 1775 on and became part of Galicia only in 1786. Therefore, the area was not affected by the 1785 census. In 1786, however, the administration ordered Jews there to adopt a “specific surname.” In contrast to Galicia, where Jewish families had to appear in person in front of a commission, the name-registration process was largely anonymous. The administration had lists of the names of all Jewish inhabitants of the province, which they simply supplemented with newly created surnames.<ref>Johannes Czakai, Nochems neue Namen: Die Juden Galiziens und der Bukowina und die Einführung deutscher Vor- und Familiennamen 1772–1820 (Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2021), 273–327</ref> '''The Second Adoption of Family Names (1787)''' In 1787, the Habsburg monarchy introduced a name edict for Jews almost throughout the Empire. Consequently, every Jew outside of Galicia (and, from 1787 on, Bukovina) had to adopt a “permanent” surname as well as a “German” first name.<ref>Wenzel Žáček, “Eine Studie zur Entwicklung der jüdischen Personennamen in neuerer Zeit,” ''Jahrbuch der Gesellschaft für Geschichte der Juden in der Čechoslovakischen Republik'', 8 (Prague: Josef Flesch, 1936), 309–397.</ref> In Galicia, however, the edict led to the revision of family names that Jews had already adopted in the previous two years. Unlike those in the rest of the Empire, Galician Jews were allowed to keep their Yiddish first names but had to use “German” surnames. This made Galicia the only province of the Habsburg monarchy that required Jews to adopt specifically German family names. The names of non-Jews in the empire were not affected by the edict and were never regulated in a similar way.[[Image:2.2.2-Names-2|2.2.2-Names-2]] Following the new regulation, local Austrian authorities reviewed family books and changed existing surnames that—in their opinion—were of Yiddish origin, referred to a place name, or were not considered German enough. Thus, the Yiddish patronymic Fishel became Fischmann, the place name Sokolower became Neugass [new alley/lane], and the German toponym Königsberg became Rosenlicht [rose light]. It is likely that up to one-third of family names in Lviv were changed. The vast majority of these surnames clearly followed the pattern of German nouns. In particular, the compound naming pattern became more common than in 1785 and led to the creation of artificial names like Goldstein [gold stone], Grünfeld [green field], and Baumwald [tree forest]. Even in this second wave of naming, however, it was possible for Jews to choose their own surnames. Thus, a small percentage of surnames were of Yiddish origin or alluded to other aspects of Jewish communal life, such as Meisels [son of Mosheh], Magid [preacher], and Kantor [cantor]. As a result of the two naming waves, up to 90 percent of Jews’ registered family names in many areas of Galicia were German.<ref>Johannes Czakai, ''Nochems neue Namen'', 327–361; Alexander Beider, ''A Dictionary of Jewish Surnames from Galicia ''(Bergenfield, NJ: Avotaynu, 2004).</ref> However, in contrast to the rest of the empire, Yiddish first names in Galicia remained untouched. The implementation of German family names in 1787 was not an elaborate plan to “Germanize” the Jews of Galicia in national terms. It was, however, closely connected to the importance of the German language as an administrative tool that connected provincial administrations throughout the empire and as the language of higher education. In this sense, the idea of German surnames is linked to other administrational means of ‘raising’ the cultural level of the Eastern European province. [[Image:2.2.2-Names-3|2.2.2-Names-3]] In 1802, Galician Jews were prohibited from using family names of Christian noble families. Although some family names were changed as a result, few families were affected by the ban. In West Galicia, the new province which was annexed in 1795, the Habsburg authorities ordered Jews to adopt family names in 1804/1805. Although little is known about the process implemented there, it supposedly resembled that in (now-called East) Galicia with commissions being responsible for registering Jewish families and their names. As in East Galicia, the newly created surnames in the West Galician metropolis [[Community:Kraków|Kraków]] were predominantly German and followed similar creation patterns. Although most of them did not refer to individual occupations or characteristics, some names were inspired by the personal circumstances of their first bearers (innkeeper Feibusch Frischbier [fresh beer], jeweler Jacob Funkelstein [sparkling stone], goldsmith Joseph Goldhammer). Jews were formally granted the right to select their own surnames and some families retained the Polish and Yiddish epithets they had used during the Polish period (Braciowka, Chocz, Kręgiel, Pos, Pufeles). In contrast to East Galicia, the name registration in West Galicia was not completed in every district of the province. Furthermore, many surnames disappeared again, when the empire lost most of West Galicia in 1809.<ref>Johannes Czakai, “In Search of the Right Benjamin: The Adoption of Jewish Family Names in Krakow and West Galicia”, in: ''Studia Judaica: Półrocznik'' [forthcoming 2025/26].</ref> '''Everyday Use of Names and Name Changes''' The new names served primarily as instruments of interaction between Jews and the authorities. As the smallest part of the Austrian control apparatus, family surnames were put to mandatory use in many ways. Family records books were checked every three months and changes in the status of household members and payment of taxes were examined. Jews who could not meet their tax obligations were threatened with expulsion from the province. Accordingly, being registered in family books under a permanent name was a prerequisite for legal residence in the province; those who lacked one were either invisible to the authorities or were treated as “beggar Jews.” Outside the official sphere, it is difficult to gauge the usage of the new surnames among Jews themselves. It can be assumed that legal names meant little to, and were largely ignored by, their bearers. In everyday local life, Jews called each other by their first names and nicknames as before. This is attested in literary works of the late 19^th century, and nicknames—often based on anecdotal events—were dominant in internal Jewish communication. Ḥasidic ''tzaddikim'' and their dynasties were commonly referred to not by their legal surnames but by their places of residence, as in Elimelech of Leżajsk (Weissblum) and the dynasties of Sadhora and Chortkiv (Friedman). Unsurprisingly, official [[Extension:Ex-2.2.2|family names rarely appeared on gravestones]] until the 20^th century as Jews continued to invoke the traditional patterns of: …(''given name)'' son of …(''father’s name)''. One thing did not change: Galician Jews were still free to use first names of their choosing as the government left this naming culture undisturbed. Children were still named after deceased relatives and given Jewish names. Combinations of two names such as Salman Hersh, Khaya Sosie, Shure Bassie, Aleksander Susman, Tsirel Dretsel, Rivka Breyndel, and Mayer Leib were common. Non-Jewish names were rare. [[Image:2.2.2-Names-4|2.2.2-Names-4]] At the beginning of the 19^th century, only the few Jews who were influenced by the ''Haskalah'' chose modern first names such as Heinrich, Friedrich, and Caroline for themselves or for their children. In the age of nationalist movements, the language of names could become an obstacle and marker of difference between Jews and non-Jews. Most Jews in Galicia carried a Hebrew or Yiddish first name and a German family name. However, in the second half of the 19^th century, urban Jews in particular began to give their children German or Polish first names or petitioned to change their own first names. For example, Breyndel became Bronisława and Avraham Binem became Adolf Bernhard. Less common was the change of family names, which did not happen as often as in Hungary. Changes of family names were predominantly from German or Yiddish into more Polish-sounding names. Thus, Samuel Elias Menkes of Lviv became Eliasz Melinski in 1891.<ref>Maria Vovchko, “‘This Name Fits Better for the Presentation of My Person’: Change of Names and Surnames by Jews of Galicia in the Late 19th–Early 20th Century,” ''Drohobytskyj kraieznavchyj zbirnyk'' 17–18 (2014), 217–234 [in Ukrainian].</ref> [[Image:2.2.2-Names-5|2.2.2-Names-5]] A distinct feature of 19^th century Galician Jewry was the use of two or more family names. Due to the steep marriage fee that the authorities charged, the vast majority of Jews avoided state-recognized marriage in favor of religious marriage alone. Therefore, their marriages were not registered and from the state’s perspective the offspring of these couples were born out of wedlock. Even at the beginning of the 20^th century, most Jewish children in Galicia were officially illegitimate.<ref>Marek Jerzy Minakowski and Anna Lebet-Minakowska, „Jewish Birth and Marriage Registrations in 19th-century Cracow and What They Reveal about the Dynamics of Ritual Marriage,“ ''Przeszłość Demograficzna Polski'' 40 (2018), 171–196, here 178.</ref> Accordingly, these children were known in everyday life by their fathers’ family names but in official documents by the family names of their ostensibly single mothers. Often, both names appear in the sources next to each other with the word ''recte ''[legally] added. Since the illegitimate status of their offspring could become problematic, it was common for couples to officially marry many years later and thus legitimize the ir children. At the end of the 19^th century, many Galician Jews moved westward to other parts of the Empire, especially Vienna. Due to the works of Austrian-German writer [[Person:FranzosKE|Karl Emil Franzos (1847–1904)]]—himself from a Jewish family in Galicia—Galician-Jewish family names became stereotypes. In his stories, he created artificial family names based on the Galician pattern of compound names, such as Galgenstrick [gallows rope] and Drachenblut [dragon’s blood], and therefore popularized them. He even wrote a pseudohistorical study on the alleged history of these names. Later, such fictitious compound names were reused as specifically “Galician-Jewish,” “Eastern Jewish,” or even “Jewish” in jokes as well as in antisemitic propaganda.<ref>Johannes Czakai, “Of Bug Crushers and Barbaric Clerks: The Fabricated History of Jewish Family Names in Karl Emil Franzos’ ‘Namensstudien’ (1880),” ''Leo Baeck Institute Year Book'' 67/1 (2022), 39–54; Dietz Bering, ''The Stigma of Names: Antisemitism in German Daily Life, 1812–1933'' (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 1992).</ref> Due to the high mobility and constant emigration of the Jewish population, Galician family names were exported to neighboring countries. This is especially evident in Moldova and Romania as the latter became a main destination of Galician-Jewish emigrants in the 19^th century. New linguistic environments for German-Jewish surnames of families from Galicia were also abetted by border adjustments, as happened when southern Bukovina became part of Romania in 1918. In the mass migration that ensued in the 1880s, with tens of thousands of Galician Jews leaving the province, German surnames from Galicia reached America, the United Kingdom, Palestine, and other countries, and can be found all over the world today. The names of the Jews in Galicia and Bukovina are mirrors of the past. They give insight into political history as well as everyday culture, highlight the similarities and differences between Jews and non-Jews, and illuminate interactions between the Habsburg monarchy and its Jewish subjects. The mass adoption of hereditary family names in the 1780s happened here earlier than anywhere else and resulted in the emergence of predominantly German family names of Yiddish-speaking Jews in a mostly Polish and Ruthenian environment. This episode in Jewish history was later distorted by literary and pop-cultural exaggerations as well as the changing importance of first names and surnames as ethnic markers in national struggles. No matter what, the ongoing existence of these family names is one of the legacies of Jewish Galicia. '''Table:''' '''Common patterns of Jewish surnames ''' {| class="wikitable" |- ! style="text-align: center;"| Pattern ! style="text-align: center;"| Example ! style="text-align: center;"| Translation |- | style="text-align: left;"| Hebrew and Yiddish names and expressions | style="text-align: left;"| Bodek (/Boidek) Katz Mendel Singer | style="text-align: left;"| Inspector of kosher meat ''kohen tsedeq'' = righteous priest Diminutive of Menaḥem Singer/cantor |- | style="text-align: left;"| Rabbinical families | style="text-align: left;"| Ginzburg Halpern Horowitz Landau | style="text-align: left;"| |- | style="text-align: left;"| Toponyms | style="text-align: left;"| Danziger Drohobiczer Polak Poltawer | style="text-align: left;"| From Danzig/Gdańsk From Drohobycz/Drohobych From Poland From Poltava |- | style="text-align: left;"| German nouns / adjectives | style="text-align: left;"| Donner Essen Grün Pferd | style="text-align: left;"| Thunder Food Green Horse |- | style="text-align: left;"| Possible personal features | style="text-align: left;"| Elend Gross Reich Stockblind | style="text-align: left;"| Miserable Tall Rich Stark-blind |- | style="text-align: left;"| German nouns/adjectives + -er | style="text-align: left;"| Berger Blitzer Hauser Wilder | style="text-align: left;"| Mountain + er Lightning + er House + er Wild + er |- | style="text-align: left;"| German nouns/adjectives + -mann | style="text-align: left;"| Fischmann Feldmann Nachtmann Neumann | style="text-align: left;"| Fish + man Field + man Night + man New + man |- | style="text-align: left;"| German compound names | style="text-align: left;"| Bernfeld Kurzmantel Riesenbach Rosenblüh | style="text-align: left;"| Bear + field Short + coat Giant + stream Rose + blossom |} Note: This table is a simple visualization of possibilities and common patterns in the process of name registration in Galicia in 1785 and 1787. The examples are randomly chosen and do not reflect their actual frequency in the province. Also, exact categorizations are often impossible because the meanings of some names are unclear while other names fit into several categories. '''Select Bibliography''' Beider, Alexander. ''A Dictionary of Jewish Surnames from Galicia.'' Bergenfield, NJ: Avotaynu, 2004. Idem. ''Handbook of Ashkenazic Given Names and Their Variants.'' Bergenfield, NJ: Avotaynu, 2009. Bering, Dietz. ''The Stigma of Names: Antisemitism in German Daily Life, 1812–1933. ''Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 1992. Czakai, Johannes. ''Nochems neue Namen: Die Juden Galiziens und der Bukowina und die Einführung deutscher Vor- und Familiennamen 1772–1820. ''Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2021. Idem. “Of Bug Crushers and Barbaric Clerks: The Fabricated History of Jewish Family Names” in Karl Emil Franzos’ ‘Namensstudien’ (1880).” ''Leo Baeck Institute Year Book'' 67/1 (2022), 39–54. Idem. “In Search of the Right Benjamin: The Adoption of Jewish Family Names in Krakow and West Galicia.” ''Studia Judaica. Półrocznik'' [forthcoming 2025/26]. Gelber, Nathan Michael. “Aus dem ‘Pinax des alten Judenfriedhofes in Brody’ (1699–1831).” ''Jahrbuch der Jüdisch-Literarischen Gesellschaft'' XIII (1920), 119–41. Hońdo, Leszek. ''Stary żydowski cmentarz w Krakowie: Historia cmentarza: Analiza hebrajskich inskrypcji''. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, 1999. Minakowski, Marek Jerzy, and Anna Lebet-Minakowska,. “Jewish Birth and Marriage Registrations in 19th-century Cracow and What They Reveal about the Dynamics of Ritual Marriage.” ''Przeszłość Demograficzna Polski'' 40 (2018), 171–196. Vovchko, Maria. “‘This Name Fits Better for the Presentation of My Person’: Change of Names and Surnames by the Jews of Galicia in the Late 19th–Early 20th Century.” ''Drohobytskyj kraieznavchyj zbirnyk'', vol. 17–18 (2014), 217–34 [in Ukrainian]. Žáček, Wenzel. “Eine Studie zur Entwicklung der jüdischen Personennamen in neuerer Zeit.” ''Jahrbuch der Gesellschaft für Geschichte der Juden in der Čechoslovakischen Republik'' 8. Prague: Josef Flesch, 1936, 309–97.

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